Alan Waxman: Financial system guardrails shape market outcomes, the impact of Glass-Steagall’s repeal, and why liquidity mismatches lead to crises | Invest Like the Best

Regulatory shifts and bank mergers post-Glass-Steagall have reshaped the US financial landscape, impacting stability and growth.

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Add us on Google by Editorial Team Apr. 10, 2026

Key Takeaways

• The financial system’s guardrails and incentives play a crucial role in shaping market outcomes.
• Historical regulatory changes have significantly influenced the evolution of the American financial system.
• The lack of separation between commercial and investment banks was a major factor in the 1929 crash.
• From 1933 to 1999, the US financial system was stable but not optimized for growth.
• The repeal of the Glass-Steagall Act in 1999 aimed to optimize the banking system for globalization.
• Deregulation post-Glass-Steagall led to mergers between commercial and investment banks.
• Investment banks increased leverage significantly to compete post-deregulation.
• Liquidity mismatches and leverage are key factors in financial crises.
• Basel III and Dodd-Frank were implemented to reduce leverage and improve bank liquidity.
• System three has the potential to be the best financial system in US history.
• Government backstops play a critical role in the stability of deposit-taking institutions.
• The evolution of financial systems highlights the importance of regulatory frameworks.

Guest intro

Alan Waxman is Co-Founding Partner and Chief Executive Officer of Sixth Street, a global multi-strategy private capital investment firm managing $130 billion in assets under management. Prior to founding Sixth Street in 2009, he was a Partner at Goldman Sachs and Chief Investment Officer of its largest proprietary investing business, where he founded and led private capital investing franchises in growth capital solutions, direct lending, and alternative energy infrastructure. His two-decade investment philosophy, developed alongside Sixth Street’s founding partners, focuses on deploying flexible capital across all stages of growth and the capital structure.

The role of financial system guardrails

• The financial system’s guardrails and incentives significantly shape market outcomes.

  — Alan Waxman

• Understanding the historical context of financial regulations is crucial for market behavior analysis.
• Regulatory frameworks influence investor behavior and market dynamics.

• There’s one that is probably under discussed… the guardrails and the incentives of the financial system itself.

  — Alan Waxman

• The design of financial regulations can either stabilize or destabilize markets.
• Incentives within the financial system can lead to unintended market consequences.
• Historical events have shaped current regulatory frameworks.
• Analyzing guardrails provides insights into potential future market shifts.

Evolution of the American financial system

• The American financial system has evolved significantly since the 1929 crash due to regulatory changes.

  — Alan Waxman

• The 1929 crash highlighted the need for separation between commercial and investment banks.

• Glass Steagall… basically said these commercial banks… just got really burned in the nineteen twenty nine crash.

  — Alan Waxman

• Regulatory changes post-1929 aimed to prevent conflicts of interest in banking.
• The Glass-Steagall Act was a pivotal regulation in shaping the banking industry.
• Historical financial crises have driven regulatory evolution.
• Understanding past regulatory changes helps predict future financial system developments.
• The evolution of the financial system reflects broader economic and political shifts.

Stability and growth from 1933 to 1999

• The financial system from 1933 to 1999 was stable but not optimized for economic growth.

  — Alan Waxman

• Separation of commercial and investment banks limited growth potential.
• Conservative risk appetites characterized this period in US banking.

• It was working it just wasn’t optimized.

  — Alan Waxman

• The system prioritized stability over aggressive economic expansion.
• Regulatory frameworks during this period focused on risk management.
• The limitations of this period set the stage for future deregulation.
• Analyzing this era provides insights into the balance between stability and growth.

The repeal of Glass-Steagall and its consequences

• The repeal of the Glass-Steagall Act in 1999 was driven by the need to optimize the banking system.

  — Alan Waxman

• Globalization pressures influenced the decision to repeal Glass-Steagall.

• As we got to a more globalized world it wasn’t really optimized to maximize economic growth.

  — Alan Waxman

• Deregulation led to a wave of mergers in the banking industry.
• The combination of commercial and investment banks changed competitive dynamics.

• You saw a wave of mergers of combining commercial banks and investment banks.

  — Alan Waxman

• The repeal aimed to enhance economic competitiveness in a global market.
• Understanding the motivations for deregulation provides insights into current banking challenges.

The impact of deregulation on investment banks

• Investment banks had to leverage up significantly to compete with combined commercial and investment banks.

  — Alan Waxman

• Deregulation increased competitive pressures on investment banks.

• You had leverage going up… in some cases twenty thirty times leverage.

  — Alan Waxman

• High leverage levels contributed to financial instability.
• The competitive landscape shifted dramatically post-deregulation.
• Investment banks faced new challenges in a deregulated environment.
• Analyzing leverage trends provides insights into financial crisis triggers.
• The response of investment banks to deregulation offers lessons for future regulatory policies.

The role of liquidity and leverage in financial crises

• The combination of liquidity mismatches and leverage is a critical factor in financial crises.

  — Alan Waxman

• Leverage and liquidity issues are common elements in historical financial crises.

• Leverage always plays a role.

  — Alan Waxman

• Understanding these factors is key to preventing future crises.
• Regulatory frameworks must address liquidity and leverage risks.
• Historical analysis provides insights into crisis prevention strategies.
• Financial stability requires careful management of leverage and liquidity.
• The interplay of these factors highlights the complexity of financial systems.

Regulatory responses post-global financial crisis

• The implementation of Basel III and Dodd-Frank post-GFC aimed to reduce excessive leverage.

  — Alan Waxman

• Basel III and Dodd-Frank introduced capital and liquidity restrictions.

• Restrictions on capital… and restrictions on liquidity.

  — Alan Waxman

• These regulations aimed to address issues that contributed to the financial crisis.
• Understanding regulatory responses helps assess their effectiveness.
• The global financial crisis prompted significant regulatory changes.
• Analyzing these changes provides insights into the evolution of banking regulations.
• The impact of these regulations on financial stability is a key area of study.

System three and the future of American finance

• System three has the potential to be the best financial system America has ever had.

  — Alan Waxman

• The structure of system three offers significant advantages.

• It took like a hundred twenty five years to get here.

  — Alan Waxman

• Government backstops enhance the stability of deposit-taking institutions.
• System three reflects the historical evolution of financial systems.
• Understanding its potential benefits provides insights into future developments.
• The role of government in backstopping banks is crucial for stability.
• Analyzing system three offers lessons for future financial system design.

Disclosure: This article was edited by Editorial Team. For more information on how we create and review content, see our Editorial Policy.